Although Thyroid cancer occurs in all age groups Incidence increases with age. The average age at time of diagnosis is 45.  There appears to be an association between external radiation to the head and neck in infancy and childhood, and subsequent development of thyroid carcinoma. (Between 1949 and 1960, radiation therapy was commonly given to shrink enlarged tonsil and adenoid tissue, to treat acne, or to reduce an enlarged thymus.) People who have goiters have an increased risk for developing thyroid cancer.
The incidence among such patients is 10–15 percent. A lack of iodine in the diet may lead to thyroid cancer. Because iodine is added to salt in the United States, thyroid cancer is rarely caused by iodine deficiencies in this country. Thyroid cancer may also have a genetic basis. Some researchers have found that an alteration in the RET gene may be transmitted from a parent to a child, causing medullary thyroid cancer. If several people in a family are diagnosed with thyroid cancer, other members may wish to be tested for a mutation of the RET gene. This syndrome, when present, is also called familial medullary thyroid cancer or Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia, type 2 (MEN 2). Individuals who have MEN 2 syndrome are also at risk for developing other types of cancer. Read more…

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Cancer of the larynx is a malignant tumor in the larynx (voice box). It is potentially curable if detected early. It represents less than 1% of all cancers and occurs about four times more frequently in men than in women, and most commonly in persons 50 to 70 years of age. Squamous cell carcinoma constitutes about 95% of laryngeal cancers. Rare laryngeal cancer forms adenocarcinoma and sarcoma account for the rest. An intrinsic tumor is on the true vocal cords and tends not to spread because underlying connective tissues lack lymph nodes. An extrinsic tumor is on some other part of the larynx and tends to spread easily. Laryngeal cancer is classified by its location:

• Supraglottis (false vocal cords)
• Glottis (true vocal cords)
• Sub glottis (rare downward extension from vocal cords).

Pathophysiology and Etiology of Laryngeal Cancer

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Treatment Management For Laryngeal Cancer Depends on sites and stages of cancer. Early malignancy may be removed endoscopically. Early lesions may respond to laser surgery or radiation therapy; advanced lesions to laser surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. Treatment aims to eliminate cancer and preserve speech. If speech preservation isn’t possible, speech rehabilitation may include esophageal speech or prosthetic devices. Other surgical procedures vary with tumor size and include cordectomy, partial or total laryngectomy, Supraglottic laryngectomy, and total laryngectomy with laryngoplasty.

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Lung cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells, which may occur in the lining of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, or alveoli. Ninety five percent of lung cancers are bronchogenic (arise from the epithelial lining of the bronchial tree).

Cause for Lung Cancers

Carcinogenesis, Initiation by a carcinogen (cancer-causing agent), for example, cigarette smoke, asbestos, or coal dust. Promotion by a secondary factor, for example, number of years smoking or number of cigarettes smoked. Progression, that is, the growth of pre-malignant cells and their ability to metastasize.

Lifestyle risk factors: Smoking, most common risk factor: 85% of people are or were former smokers. Others risk factor is Environmental tobacco smoke (secondhand smoke).About 3,400 lung cancer deaths in nonsmoking adults. Nonsmokers chronically exposed to secondhand smoke may have as much as a 24% increased risk for developing lung cancer.

Occupational risks: Radon, Asbestos fibers e.g. insulation and shipbuilding (7 times increased risk of death in asbestos workers & Asbestos exposure combined with cigarette smoking act synergistically to produce an increased risk of lung cancer), Arsenic (copper refining and pesticides), Beryllium (airline industry and electronics), Metals (nickel or copper), Chromium, Cadmium, Coal tar (mining), Mustard gas, Air pollution: diesel exhaust, Radiation, Tuberculosis.

Biological risks Sex/age: Males have a greater risk of lung cancer than do females, although incidence rate is declining significantly in men, from high of 102 per 100,000 in 1984 to 77.8 per 100,000 in 2002. Lung cancer incidence doubled in females from 1975 to 2000 and now has stabilized. Increased risk is associated with increasing age. 70% of all lung cancers diagnosed in individuals over the age of 65 and the number of cases diagnosed at 50 or earlier is increasing.

Family history: Lung cancer in one parent increases their children’s risk of the diagnosis of lung cancer before age 50.

Genetic predisposition: Genetic susceptibility is a contributing factor in those that develop lung cancer at a younger age. A single gene for lung cancer has not been identified. Abnormalities of p53 gene, a tumor-suppressor gene, have been suggested to be mutated in many people with lung cancer. EGFL6 gene identified as potential tumor marker.

Race:  African Americans, native Hawaiians, and non-Hispanic whites have greater risk of lung cancer. Black men between the age of 35 and 64 years of age have twice the risk compared to non-Hispanic Whites.

Chronic inflammation, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and pulmonary fibrosis: Tuberculosis: Scarring of healthy lung tissue may lead to lung cancer development. Pulmonary fibrosis: Silica is the probable lung carcinogen. COPD: Airflow limitation results in a 6.44 times greater risk for lung cancer compared with the risk associated with absence of ventilator impairment. Read more…

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Knowing the stage of Lung Cancer is important because treatment is often decided according to the stage of a Lung cancer. TNM staging system. TNM staging takes the following factors into account. The size of the Lung Cancer (T). Whether Lung Cancer cells have spread into the lymph nodes (N) whether the Lung Cancer has spread anywhere else in the body – secondary cancer or metastases (M)

Stage of Lung cancer TNM (Tumor, Nodes, Metastases) system of staging

TNM Stage of Lung cancer Description:

Primary tumor (T)

• TX; Primary tumor cannot be assessed, or tumor proven by the presence of malignant cells in sputum or bronchial washings but not visualized by imaging or bronchoscopy.
• T0 :  No evidence of primary tumor
• Tis :  Carcinoma in situ
• T1 :  Tumor 3 cm in greatest dimension, surrounded by lung or visceral pleura, without bronchoscopic evidence of invasion more proximal than the lobar bronchus (i.e., not in the main bronchus)
• T2: Tumor with any of the following features of size or extent: 3 cm in greatest dimension. Involves main bronchus, 2 cm distal to the carina Invades the visceral pleura Associated with atelectasis or obstructive pneumonitis that extends to the hilar region but does not involve the entire lung.
• T3 : Tumor of any size that directly invades any of the following: chest wall (including superior sulcus tumors), diaphragm, mediastinum pleura, parietal pericardium; or          tumor in the main bronchus, 2 cm distal to the carina, but without involvement of          the carina; or associated atelectasis or obstructive pneumonitis of the entire lung
• T4: Tumor of any size that invades any of the following: mediastinum, heart, great vessels, trachea, esophagus, vertebral body, carina; or tumor with a malignant pleural or pericardial effusion, b or with satellite tumor nodule(s) within the ipsilateral primary-tumor lobe of the lung Read more…

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